M1L8: India Afghanistan

When I started to write this chapter, there was a lot of turbulence in my mind. Millions of thoughts attacking from all the sides making me crazy. I decided to leave this and come back, once this anxiety settles down.

My son came to me, and he asked me which is my favourite poem. I replied to him, that the poem is written by a Nobel laureate and the legend of all times, whom I admire the most. His name is Rabindranath Tagore and the poem, I love the most is composed by him.

Where the mind is without fear and the head is held high

Where knowledge is free

Where the world has not been broken up into fragments

By narrow domestic walls

Where words come out from the depth of truth

Where tireless striving stretches its arms towards perfection

Where the clear stream of reason has not lost its way

Into the dreary desert sand of dead habit

Where the mind is led forward by thee

Into ever-widening thought and action

Into that heaven of freedom, my Father, let my country awake.

He wrote this poem in ‘Gitanjali’ in the year 1910. Before I finished reciting this poem, he rushed to his room and brought me his book with a chapter composed by an author with the same name. And he asked me, if both are one or different? To reply him satisfactorily, I glanced at the title of the story. It’ name was Kabuliwala… originally written by Rabindranath Tagore in the year 1892. I studied this story in my 7^th standard of English classes.

The story is of a Hazara merchant from Kabul, who comes to Calcutta, each year for selling dry-fruits and while living in India he becomes friends with a five-year-old girl Mini from a middle-class aristocratic family. He had been visiting Mini almost daily, and by offering her pistachio nuts he had already won a large part of the girl’s childish heart. One day Kabuliwala is sent behind bars for eight years for injuring a man with a dagger. The day he is released from jail, Mini is about to get married. She has changed through all these years as she is only friendly with girls now who are about her own age. Rahmat tells Mini's father that he wants to see her. When Mini is called, Kabuliwala is surprised to see how much she has grown. He is immediately reminded of his own daughter back in Kabul who is around the same age as Mini. He is deeply saddened as soon as he remembers her and how much he has missed her all these years.

While music is being played for Mini's wedding, Kabuliwala slouches on the floor remembering the land of his birth and his daughter.

I asked myself. How could Rabindranath Tagore compose this story in the year 1892 with such an enormous fluidity, with magnificent reflection and sparkling realities of the love that exists among the Afghans and North Indians? And yes, if that weren’t the case, why would Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan support Mahatma Gandhi, in his fight against the British empire?

And the answer was… This happened because India was identified as a region. The Arabs gave the word Hindus to us as the people living along the banks of river Indus and its tributaries.  This was true until the Western concept of nation-state was imposed upon us and another country, was scissor-ed out of the very flesh of India. This led to disconnection between India.

Durand Line, intentionally divided Pashtun tribes living in the area to prevent them from becoming a nuisance for the Raj. The Pashtuns still want to unite the areas on both the sides of the border. The movement for the same is known as Greater Pashtunistan. Even after Pakistan got formed, the Afghan government actually opposed the membership of Pakistan in the United Nations. It claimed that this will dilute the treaties that it had signed with the British Raj, now recognised as independent India. They claim that Pakistan is actually represented by Punjabi and Sindh provinces. The other two provinces viz. Khyber Pathankuwa and Baluchistan should ideally be a part of Afghanistan. (India is connected to Afghanistan through Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (PoK))

The second question to me was… why did the Kabuliwala keep the dagger that brought curse on him? To understand this, I went to Calcutta to find the streets to understand their culture ‘Pashtunwali’.

The pashtun or Pathans as they are called in India are integral part of Indian society pre-dating Islamic origination which goes back to ancient times. They are known as Khans… You might have encountered these names. Shahrukh khan, Imran Khan, Aamir Khan, Zareen Khan etc. Who are these people? They are ethnically Pathans. Let’s not forget Frontier Gandhi, ‘Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan’.

These Pashtuns or Pathans follow a culture, which is reflected from this quote that they frequently repeat as follows

“You will never find a more noble, Honourable and Loyal friend

and

Neither you will find a more Honest and fiercer enemy”.

So, how do you define Pashtuns and Pashtunwali?

Pashtun is a race, but Pashtunwali is a state of mind that overpowers him. It is closely connected to their sense of pride and self-respect. And this honour of name and dignity is naturally attached to national pride. They will never never never … allow any other group or community of people dominate upon them. There is a famous saying among the Pakhtun that

“A Pakhtun is like a lamb:

if you pull him by power towards heaven, he will resist

but

if taken with love, he will happily go with you even to hell.”

The world community must keep in mind that they have never been subjugated by force in any age from Alexander the Great to the invasion of the USSR, now Russia or present-day Americans and NATO.

The Pakhtuns are very serious about their identity and Pakhtunwali is their identity as well as their code of honour. If they are allowed to live with honour, they will never take up arms in any circumstances, since honour is the real purpose of life.  They will also

contribute substantially in any war against extremism only after they are properly taken into confidence and consulted through the Jirga.

Pashtunwali is the culture and way of life of the Pakhtuns, in which all the laws relating to social life are present in unwritten form. Though not a religion, but a very sacred code of conduct, Pakhtuns love their Pashto so much that it has almost gained the status of a religion. It is so dear to the Pakhtuns that sometimes and in some special circumstances they call it “The 5th religion,” because most of the Pakhtuns are followers of the four creeds of Islam. The main tenets of Pashtunwali include: 1.    Melmastia: Hospitality and asylum to all guests seeking help. 2.    Badal: Justice and revenge, possibly derived from ancient Israelite Mosaic Law, "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." 3.    Zan, Zar and Zameen: Defense of women/family, treasure, and property/land. 4.    Nanawati: Humble admission of guilt for a wrong committed, which should result in automatic forgiveness from the wronged party. During the time of Aurangzeb (6th Mughal Ruler), a revolt was triggered when soldiers under the orders of the Mughal Governor Amir Khan allegedly attempted to molest women of the Safi tribe in modern day Kunar. The Safi tribemen retaliated and killed the soldiers. This attack provoked a reprisal, which triggered a general revolt of the most of tribes. When news reached Aurangzeb that his general was killed, he appealed to the tribe to hand over the killers. The elders refused and challenged the Emperor. This was owing to their stance of Pashtunwali.

In 2018, the Australian film ‘Jirga’ won the AACTA (Australian Oscars) BEST INDEPENDENT FILM award. The movie is a modern morality tale about a former Australian soldier, Mike, who returns to Afghanistan to find the family of a civilian he accidentally killed during the war. Seeking forgiveness, he puts his life in the hands of the village justice system – the Jirga.

Khudai Khidmatgar literally translates as the servants of God. It represented a non-violent freedom struggle against the British Empire by the Pashtuns (also known as Pathans, Pakhtuns or Afghans) of the North West Frontier Province. The movement was led by Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, known locally as Bacha Khan or Badshah Khan.

The Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 also known as the Treaty of Rawalpindi, was an armistice made between the United Kingdom and Afghanistan during the Third Anglo-Afghan War. It was signed on 8 August 1919 in Rawalpindi, British India (now in Punjab, Pakistan). The United Kingdom recognised Afghanistan's independence, agreed that British India would not extend past the Khyber Pass and stopped British subsidies to Afghanistan. This internationally recognised border agreement gave a de-jure recognition to Durand Line as a country outside the British Raj. By virtue of this, the Afghans celebrate the year 1919 as their independence year. The year 1919 is visible on the seal embossed on the national flag of Afghanistan.       The symbol of Masjid in the seal embossed in their national flag reveals something very important. ‘Religion’. For every Afghan, religion is a way of life for every ethnic group in Afghanistan. It permeates every aspect of social relations and is present in everyday conversations. To most Afghans, it is difficult to imagine a separation of religion from political, economic, moral, and legal questions because Islam is woven through every part of life. This sense of identity is also linked to strong, confident cultural identities. To be Turkmen, Pashtun, or Tajik is inseparable from being Muslim.  Especially among Pashtuns, this self-confidence leads Afghans to see themselves as natural-born Muslims.  Foreigners and foreign ideas are viewed as inferior.  Even foreign Muslims are treated with suspicion. Afghan Pashtuns see themselves as the purest and strongest Muslims and share a unanimous opinion that their cultural customs and beliefs are fully consistent with Islam.  This means that it would be naïve to assume that the current Taliban phenomenon is the true face of Pashtun identity. When the Taliban were vying for influence in 1990s, the Afghan Pashtuns strongly pushed back against their ideologies. Event today, many Afghans reject doctrinal advice from foreign Muslims and resist Taliban edicts that contradicts their traditional beliefs and practices. These groups strongly believe that it is the Taliban ideology, that poses a strong risk to their social structure and practises. While it is clearly visible that the top Taliban commanders are Pashtuns, it is equally sad to see that the real faces of Pashtun society are getting completely marginalized. A lot of scientific research is required to be done on this subject to bring stability in Afghanistan.

Ethnics in Afghanistan

·         Ethnicity is the fundamental basis for identity in Afghanistan. The Afghan populace divides itself into several large ethnic groups. About 80% of the people live and work in rural areas, and many still lead a nomadic life.

Pashtuns

·         The Pashtuns meaning true Afghans. They are Pashto speaking and make up over 40% of the total population. They represent the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan. They are predominantly Sunni Muslims and subscribe to Pashtunwali, which is an overarching code of conduct and way of life. This unwritten code of honor is a system in which possession of honor guarantees membership in the society. Honor is required to maintain the rights, protection and support of the community.

·         Pashtuns dominate an area that spans eastern, southern, and western Afghanistan, as well as portions of Pakistan. This area is known as Pashtunistan, the Pashtun Belt and Pakhtunkhwa. Pakistan’s policy has been mainly supportive of the Pashtuns, especially in more recent times, but does not support the claim for self-determination of the 13 million Pashtuns living in the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, out of fear of losing part of their territory.

Tajiks

·         Tajiks make up around 27% of the population of Afghanistan, making them the second largest ethnic group after the Pashtuns. They are highly Persianized and primarily speak ‘Dari’. They are mostly Sunni Muslims with a Shia Minority (mostly in Western Afghanistan) (another Iranian influence where India can with)

·         They are the most affluent and educated people in Afghanistan and are found in the greatest numbers in urban centres. As a result of this wealth and levels of education, they wield a significant political influence within Afghanistan. Being of Central Asian origin they maintain a kinship with the 7 million ethnic Tajiks who live in the neighbouring Central Asian state of Tajikistan. Russians guard these borders between Afghanistan and Tajikistan to restrict the movement of drugs on the way to Moscow via Tajikistan.

·         Tajiks were earlier anti-Taliban. However, with the rise of Islamic State in Afghanistan, they are making alliances with Taliban to restrict the Daesh movement. Russians are supporting them in the in Sar-e Pul province.

·         Tajiks are the main rivals of the Pashtuns, vying for power, control and influence in Afghanistan. They once supported Soviet invasion on Afghanistan in the year 1979, which was fiercely retaliated by Mujahideen (later known as Taliban). The Tajiks are therefore, particularly wary of the inclusion of the Taliban in any peace negotiations, since they fear that the outcome would likely result in increased discrimination.

·         Current grievances among the community centre on the issue of political participation. There appears to be a desire among the political elites within the community for greater involvement not only over Tajik-majority regions but also for a greater stake in the central government. While Tajiks have not engaged in armed rebellion since the overthrow of the Taliban, those belonging to armed groups have maintained a relatively high level of communal conflict with Pashtuns. They also desire greater economic opportunities and are mindful of the discrimination they face in pro-Taliban areas due to their prominent role in ousting the previous regime.

·         One thing should be noted that the importance of kinship to the Tajiks does not extend much beyond the extended family or village; therefore, tribalism is weak. This is unlike the case with the Pashtuns wherein mobilisation happens around Pashtun nationalism & patronage around local tribe (recognised as Qawm)

The Shia Hazaras

·         Hazaras are the third largest ethnic group. They form 15% of the total population of Afghanistan and follow Shia faith of Islam, and therefore have natural ties to Iran. They were once the largest Afghan ethnic group constituting nearly 67 per cent of the total population of the state before the 19th century. More than half were massacred in 1893 when their autonomy was lost as a result of political action.

·         They are mostly concentrated in Hazarajat, the mountainous area in central Afghanistan near Bamiyan.

·         They can be easily recognised because of their Mongol descent. (Indians and Pakistanis have round eyebrows and a dark skin. Hazaras are very fair and have straight eyebrows).  They have been the target of punitive discrimination and violence in Afghanistan due to their perceived ethnic, Mongolian roots and religious beliefs. The persecution created a unified ethnic group.

·         Hazaras speak a dialect of Dari (Farsi dialect) called Hazaragi and view the Pashtun-dominated government with suspicion. At national level, Hazaras are found to be more progressive concerning women’s rights to education and public participation.

·         All the other groups share co-ethnics with people on the other side of the border except Hazaras. They are landlocked.

After the Taliban seized power in 1996, they declared Jihad on the Shi’a Hazaras. In the years that followed, Hazaras faced particularly severe repression and persecution, including a series of mass killings in northern Afghanistan, where thousands of Hazaras lost their lives or were forced to flee their homes.  Consequently, Hazaras formed part of the Northern Alliance forces that opposed the Taliban and took power after the Taliban fell in 2001.

This is not the first time in the history that Shias have been targeted. Even during the reign of Amir Abdul Rahman (1880-1901), they suffered severe political, social and economic repression, as Jihad was declared by Sunni leaders on all Shi’as of Afghanistan. To strengthen the forces against the Hazara rebellion that followed, Rahman played on Sunni religious sensibilities and even attracted Tajiks and Uzbeks (both Sunnis) to help the Pashtuns against the Shi’a Hazaras. Those who survived the initial period of the raids managed to escape to the north while a significant number fled to then British India. Apart from Pashtuns, Uzbeks are also thought to have conducted slave raids on the Hazaras in Bamyan and elsewhere.

Rahman’s suppression of Hazara ranged from issuing unwarranted taxes to assaults on Hazara women, massacres, looting and pillaging of homes, enslavement of Hazara children, women and men, and replacement of Shi’a clerics with their Sunni religious counterparts. Hazarajat was occupied by Rahman in 1893 and it is estimated that 60% of the Hazara population was wiped out by him.

Uzbeks and Turkmen

·         Uzbeks are the fourth largest ethnic group and are mainly found in the northern regions. They share border with Uzbekistan, which is mostly closed since 1998 to prevent the overland trade of drugs on its soil. This closure of the border has resulted in a significant loss of trade to these people. The other border towards the Turkmenistan side is usually peaceful.

·         The Uzbeks are largely Sunni. Recently, the Taliban has started to recruit more heavily by recruiting ethnic Turkmen and Uzbeks from the north western Faryab province and northern Jowzjan province.

·         With increasing resentment, sense of discontent and lack of trust on the central government that it cannot provide adequate protection, many of them are now joining different terrorist camps like (Jundullah, Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, Islamic Jihad Union, Islamic State of Khorasan etc.)

·         Turkmen are the fifth largest ethnic group and are mostly found in the areas near Turkmenistan. The Turkmen are traditionally nomadic people, Turkish speaking and sell Turkmen carpets. In contrast to Uzbeks, Turkmen sought to avoid confrontation by remaining neutral throughout the decades of conflict in Afghanistan. As a result, they had no powerful leaders or warlords to represent them politically during and in the aftermath of the civil war and the modern rebuilding process. Accordingly, they remained apart from the social and political mainstream of Afghanistan. They have been historically excluded from decision-making processes and ignored by the ruling class. They have had no representation to uphold their rights and have never generally been properly represented in the overall administration structures.

In order to quell Pashtun dominance, the Soviets, during their occupation of Afghanistan adopted a divide and rule policy, especially in the northern areas where Uzbeks had a significant presence. This was relatively effective in stemming the influence of Pashtuns, who were the main resistance against them in Kabul. In keeping with their policy, Uzbeks and to a lesser extent Turkmen were given a degree of autonomy and trained to fight against the Mujahidin in case of attack. For the first time in the history of Afghanistan, except during periods of anarchy and rebellion, Uzbeks along with Tajiks and Hazaras exercised full administrative and political autonomy. They later on, after the event of 911 became part of the Northern Alliance, which fought against the Taliban regime.

Difference between Shia and a Sunni The original split between Sunnis and Shiites occurred soon after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, in the year 632. It should however be noted that these two sects do not differ about the Prophet himself. They are also unanimous about the principles of Monotheism and Prophethood. What they differ in, is who deserves to be the successor of prophet Muhammad. For the Sunnis, the successor of the prophet can be elected by the people. As per them, the political leadership or the rulership of the state instituted by man is equally legitimate. And they elected ‘Abu Bakr ibn Abi Quhafah’ for this post, on the faith that he would be the best able person to lead the Muslim community (Ummah). This system of Khilafat is actually called as AMARAT (administrative rulership). The Shias foresee Ali ibn Talib for this post. However, they believe in IMAMAT. For them, an Imam is a leader and a guide. They are divinely inspired and the pivot of faith to attain salvation.  Thus, for them the concept of Khilafat is not in terms of administrative and worldly sense. Their concept is that of Khilafat e Ilahia which means religious leadership. Which they symbolically refer to as Imamat They argue that prophet Muhammad, on behalf of almighty had already appointed Ali ibn Abi Talib for this post. From their perspective, the caliphs were sympathizers to the prophet and the cause of Islam. But they were prone to mistakes and cannot be put in the same league as an Imam. In order to justify the same, they provide certain evidences of the behaviour of the second caliph, ‘Omar ibn Khattab’ towards the family members of the prophet in the aftermath of prophet’ death. This include torturing prophet’ daughter ‘Fatima’ when she was pregnant to burning down her house, snatching their land ‘Fadak’ and forcefully asking ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib’ (husband of Fatima) to pay allegiance to the first caliph regardless of his background. The Shias equally doubt the legitimacy of fifth caliph, ‘Muawiyah ibn X*’ while the Sunnis respect all of them regardless of their backgrounds. (*Muawiyah’ father is not known since his mother had multiple extra marital affairs. Both the Shias and Sunnis are unanimous about it. His mother openly revealed her hatred for the family of prophet Muhammad and was involved in the killing of Muhammad’ companion and paternal uncle Hamza ibn Abdul-Muttalib) Under the same light, the uprising that was led by the second generation of prophet Muhammad (including the grandsons and the granddaughters of the prophet) against the Umayyad caliphate was not to seek vengeance. Nor it was led to attain power and glory, as we understand in literary sense as a fight between two princes. It was done to restore the values of Islam that the caliph at that time was trying to eliminate. Come down to the 20th century and the discovery of oil. Shiites predominate where there is oil. This is equally true for Iran, in Iraq and in the oil-rich areas of eastern Saudi Arabia as well. Equally important is the fact that the concept of nation state, that was completely new for the Muslims was imposed on them under the colonial occupation of France and Britain. So now, what we find is that religion, has now become a mere instrument for forwarding the ambitions of the state. This is perfectly explained by Al-Jazeera correspondent Mehdi Hassan I put no stock in religion. By the word religion I have seen the lunacy of fanatics of every denomination, who claim to be the will of God Kingdom of heaven (2005)

Afghanistan, Then and Now…

In 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani established his rule. Durranis are among the most educated, urbanised and liberal Pashtuns compared to the Ghilzais who live in Eastern and Southern Afghanistan and share co-ethnics with people on the other side of the Durand line (i.e. Western Pakistan).

(Pls note that the surnames also reveal the tribes which a person belongs to. You must have heard the name Malala Yousoufzai and Shahid Afridi. Here Yousoufzai and Afridi reveals the tribe they belong to.)

  

During the 19th century, British India reached to the borders of Afghanistan. Meanwhile Tzarist Russia also expanded its boundaries to what we recognise as Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan.

British got concerned over Russian advances in Central Asia. They feared that if Afghanistan is lost to the Russians, the Russians would then try to encroach their own sphere of influence which they called as British Raj. (India was a pearl in the crown of British Raj, which they could never afford to lose).

British efforts were to keep Afghan under their control to impede Russian advances. After the first Anglo Afghan war, they try to install King Shah Shujah. He is assassinated in 1842.  In the year 1878-80, the British invade Afghanistan once again leading to second Anglo-Afghan War. A treaty was signed that gave them control of Afghan foreign affairs. However, in the third Anglo-Afghan war, things changed.

King Amanullah Khan (1919-1929) launched attacks on British forces in Afghanistan (Third Anglo-Afghan War) shortly after taking power and won complete independence from Britain. The war-weary British relinquished control by signing the Treaty of Rawalpindi in August 1919.

In commemoration of this event, Afghans celebrate August 19 as their Independence Day. King Amanullah (1919-1929) moved to end his country’s traditional isolation and modernize the nation. Some of his reforms included the abolition of the traditional Muslim veil for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools but the King alienated tribal leaders. He was forced to abdicate later on. Eventually, Mohammad Zahir Shah succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973.

 

He introduced new reforms which led to the growth of unofficial extremist parties on both the left and the right. These included the communist People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which had close ideological ties to the Soviet Union. Throughout the 1970s, both Afghanistan and India tilted towards USSR regardless of both open claiming to be the members of Non-Aligned Movement. At the same time, Paksitan joined US led block known as SEATO and CENTO.

Since Zahir Shah had differences with Pakistan on the issue of Khyber Pathankuwa province, India found a fertile ground for cooperating with Afghanistan. Both India and Afghanistan signed the treaty of friendship in the year 1950. In the same year, Afghanistan also attended the conference organised by India at Bandung to exert common heritage of all the neighbouring countries.

A secret alliance was formed between the intelligence agencies of the three countries. They were R&AW (Research and Analysis Wing (India), KGB (Komitet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosti (Russian) and the KHAD (Khadamat e Aetla’at e Dawlati (Afghanistan)).

Amid charges of corruption against the royal family and poor economic conditions, former Prime Minister Sardar Mohammad Daoud seized power in a military coup on July 17, 1973. Daoud abolished the monarchy. He wanted to seize Khyber Pathankuwa (KP) and Balochistan from Pakistan, which he believed rightfully belongs to Afghanistan. 

As Daoud began to initiate a covert war on Pakistan for KP province, the US lifted the arms embargo on Pakistan and started providing them with arms. Secondly, Pakistani ISI also started to support the opponents of Doud in Afghanistan. This led the ISI to create an organisation called Jamaat e Islami (JEI) which consisted of Ahmed Shah Masood (Tajik), Burhanuddin Rabbani (Tajik) and Gulmuddin Hekmatayar (Pashun). In 1975, JEI with support of ISI attempted a coup against Doud. The coup failed. This led to a split in the JEI. Hekmatayar formed Hizb-e-Islami group.

On April 27, 1978, however the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), which had close ideological ties to the Soviet Union, initiated a bloody coup, which resulted in the overthrow and murder of Daoud and most of his family. During its first 18 months of rule, the PDPA brutally imposed a Marxist-style “reform” program, which ran counter to deeply rooted Afghan traditions.

People rebelled against it and the government tried to crush the same. In addition, thousands of members of the traditional elite, the religious establishment, and the intelligentsia were imprisoned, tortured, or murdered. Conflicts within the PDPA also surfaced early and resulted in exiles, purges, imprisonments, and executions.

Since the regime’s survival was increasingly dependent upon Soviet assistance, Moscow signed a treaty of friendship and cooperation with Afghanistan in the year 1978. Insurgency was spreading rapidly to overthrow this communist ideology led government. As much as 80% of the countryside eluded government control since an overwhelming majority of Afghans opposed the communist regime.

With massive political crisis, fermenting in Afghanistan, the Russians invaded Afghanistan. They wanted to install their own puppet government. When the Soviets invaded Afghanistan, India had a caretaker government led by Charan Singh. The government of India criticised the Soviet invasion.

In 1980, Indira Gandhi came back to power with a new strategy. She wanted RAW, KHAD and KGB to work together to keep Pakistan in check. India then offered a pro-USSR stand on Afghanistan (which alienated India from the aspirations of the Afghan people). This was seen as a compromise of India’ non-alignment credentials.

Mostly of the Russians following communist ideology are atheists. Saudi Arabia and Pakistan decided to help the Afghan fighters (mujahideen), under the banner of helping the Muslims on Afghan soil against the Soviet invasion (who are atheists). At that time from the year 1979 till the year 1988, more than 50,000 Arabs from Saudi Arabia (that followed Wahhabi ideology) went to Afghanistan to assist the local Pashtuns there. This happened right under the nose of USA. (Ironically Christine Fair, a US based expert on India and Afghanistan claim that USA at that time, was not aware of it). 

Saudi Arabia has a long history of involvement in Afghanistan. It channelled hundreds of millions of dollars to the mujahedin during the war against the Soviet occupation. It was one of three countries to formally recognize the Taliban government. A majority of Saudi citizens practice the strict Wahhabi brand of Islam similar to that of the Taliban.

The Mujahideens made it almost impossible for the regime to maintain a system of local government outside major urban centers. Poorly armed at first, in 1984 the mujahideen began receiving substantial assistance in the form of weapons and training from the U.S. and other outside powers.

The mujahedin weaponry included U.S.-supplied portable shoulder-fired anti-aircraft systems called "Stingers," which proved highly effective against Soviet aircraft. Partly because of the effectiveness of the Stinger in shooting down Soviet helicopters and fixed wing aircraft, the Soviet Union's losses mounted–about 13,400 Soviet soldiers were killed in the war, according to Soviet figures–turning Soviet domestic opinion against the war.

 On April 14, 1988, then-Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev agreed to a U.N.-brokered accord (the Geneva Accords) requiring the Soviet Union to withdraw. The withdrawal was completed by February 15, 1989, leaving in place the weak Najibullah government. About 14,500 Soviet and an estimated one million Afghan lives were lost between 1979 and the Soviet withdrawal in 1989.

Despite the Soviet troop withdrawal in 1989, Najibullah still enjoyed Soviet financial and advisory support. However, his position weakened subsequently after the Soviets cut off financial and advisory support as of January 1, 1992. On March 18, 1992, Najibullah publicly agreed to step down once an interim government was formed. However, this announcement set off rebellions by Uzbek and Tajik militia commanders in northern Afghanistan.

The fall of Najibullah exposed rifts among the mujahedin parties. Under an agreement among the major parties, Burhanuddin Rabbani (Tajik) became president in June 1992 with agreement that he would serve until December 1994. That decision was strongly opposed by other mujahedin leaders including Gulbuddin Hikmatyar, a Pashtun, and leader of the Islamist conservative Hizb-e-Islami.

Rabbani reached an agreement for Hikmatyar to serve as Prime Minister, but because of mutual mistrust, Hikmatyar never formally took office and fighting eventually destroyed much of west Kabul.

In all this case, the mujahideen were party to neither the negotiations nor to the 1988 agreement, and, consequently, refused to accept the terms of the Geneva accords. In 1993-1994, many former mujahedin, Islamic clerics and students who had studied in Islamic seminaries in Pakistan ("madrassas") that teach "Deobandi" school of Islam, formed the Taliban movement.

The Taliban viewed the Rabbani government as weak, corrupt, and anti-Pashtun. As a result, the civil war continued after the Soviet withdrawal, which was completed in February 1989.

In 1994, the Taliban developed enough strength to capture the city of Kandahar from a local warlord and proceeded to expand its control throughout Afghanistan.  The extremists in Kashmir started drawing inspiration from the resistance offered by Afghan Mujahideen against the Soviets during the Cold War. This led to a full-fledged civil war in Kashmir. During that year, the Organisation of Islamic Countries (OIC) was pushing a resolution at the UN Human Rights Council, to condemn India for human right violations in Kashmir. The resolution was to be referred to the UN Security Council for initiating economic sanctions and other punitive measures against India. In the OIC, the decisions are taken by consensus. It was then the government led by P.V. Narsimha Rao. He immediately sent Dinesh Singh, a very efficient diplomat to Iran to convince them, that India is doing its best to resolve the issue in Kashmir. The intention was, once there is no consensus in the OIC, the resolution was bound to fall through. India could convince Iran and Iran did come to our rescue. It distanced itself from Pakistan on the issue of Kashmir in OIC. Did India, under the leadership of ruling Prime Minister Narendra Modi return the favour when US imposed the sanctions on Iran (some material thing which can be termed as substantial and concrete other than verbal assurance)?

By the end of 1998, the Taliban occupied about 90% of the country. The Taliban sought to impose an extreme interpretation of Islam – based on the rural Pashtun tribal code – on the entire country and committed massive human rights violations, particularly directed against women and girls. The Taliban also committed serious atrocities against minority populations

In 2001, as part of a drive against relics of Afghanistan’s pre-Islamic past, the Taliban destroyed two huge Buddha statues carved into a cliff face outside of the city of Bamiyan.

From the mid-1990s, the Taliban provided sanctuary to Osama bin Laden, a Saudi national who had fought with the mujahideen resistance against the Soviets and provided a base for his and other terrorist organizations. Bin Laden provided both financial and political support to the Taliban. In addition to previous terrorist attacks, Bin laden and Al-Qaida have acknowledged their responsibility for the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States

Following the Taliban’s repeated refusal to expel bin Laden and his group and end its support for international terrorism, the U.S. and its partners in the anti-terrorist coalition began a military campaign on October 7, 2001, targeting terrorist facilities and various Taliban military and political assets within Afghanistan

Under pressure from U.S. military and anti-Taliban forces, the Taliban disintegrated rapidly and Kabul fell on November 13, 2001. Afghan factions opposed to the Taliban (also known as Northern Alliance) met at a United Nations conference and agreed to restore stability and governance to Afghanistan

They tried creating an interim government and establish a process to move toward a permanent government. A nationwide “Loya Jirga” (Grand Council) decided on the structure of the government. 

On October 9, 2004, Afghanistan held its first national democratic presidential election. More than 8 million Afghans voted, 41% of whom were women. Hamid Karzai was announced as the official winner and was inaugurated as Afghanistan’s first democratically elected president.

Loya Jirga is a traditional Afghan assembly, akin to a Tribal council, where the head of each tribe meets and approve the constitutional reforms in Afghanistan. Under the existing composition of Loya Jirga, women hold 68 seats in the total number of seats reserved for each ethnic groups as follows Pashtun: 96 Hazara: 61 Tajik: 53 Uzbek: 15 Aimak: 8 Arab: 8 Turkmen: 3 Nuristani: 2 Baloch: 1 Pahhai: 1 Turkic: 1

The democratic government’s authority is growing, although its ability to deliver necessary social services remains largely dependent on funds from the international donor community. U.S. assistance for Afghanistan’s reconstruction from the fiscal year 2001 to 2011 totals over $40 billion.

Post 911

The Taliban regime in Afghanistan was highly antagonistic to Iran, and Tehran viewed it as a security threat to itself and the Hazara Shia Muslims in Afghanistan. In August 1998 (exactly three years before 911 happened in the year 2001), the Taliban captured Mazar-i-Sharif. In addition to killing hundreds of Shia Muslims, the Taliban stormed the Iranian Consulate in the city and killed eight Iranian diplomats and an Iranian journalist and held 50 other Iranian national’s captives. The killings and the capture of Iranians were seen in Tehran as a national humiliation and perhaps a clear reminder of Tehran’s failed policies in Afghanistan. During the same year in 1999, India also suffered a setback from Taliban when Flight IC 814 with Indian passengers was hijacked with ISI support. In order to avenge the same, when 911 happened in the year 2001, Tehran and New Delhi cooperated with Washington during Operation Enduring Freedom by providing vital intelligence support to the U.S. war effort. Their aim was to destroy the breeding grounds for Taliban by bring pressure from USA upon Pakistan.

All three of them supported Northern Alliance (a loose alliance of Tajiks, Hazaras & Uzbeks in Afghanistan) & also provided Intelligence to the United States to prevent Taliban’s from rising to power in Afghanistan. This led to an interesting regional matrix among these countries who collaborated to securing individual, political and strategic interests in Afghanistan.

Air India Flight IC 814 event Indian Airlines Flight 814 was en route from Kathmandu, Nepal to IGI Airport in Delhi, India. On Friday, 24 December 1999, it was hijacked by a group Harkat-ul-Mujahideen. After touching down in Amritsar, Lahore, and Dubai, the hijackers finally forced the aircraft to land in Kandahar, Afghanistan, which at the time was controlled by the Taliban. During the episode, it was found that two ISI men were also found to be on the tarmac and others soon joined the Talibans in which one was a lieutenant colonel and the other a major. The motive for the hijacking appears to have been to secure the release of Islamist figures held in prison in India. The hostage crisis lasted for seven days and ended after India agreed to release following. 1.         Maulana Masood Azhar – founded Jaish-e-Muhammed in 2000. This person is alleged to be involved during 2001 Indian Parliament attack & then the 26/11 attack 2.         Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh – arrested in 2002 by Pakistani authorities for the abduction and murder of Daniel Pearl. 3.         Mushtaq Ahmed Zargar – has played an active role since release in training Islamic militants in Azad Kashmir. 4.         Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh, who had been imprisoned in connection with the 1994 Kidnappings of Western tourists in India, went on to murder Daniel Pearl and also allegedly played a significant role in planning the September 11 attacks in the United States.

Let’s take this one step further. 

This ideology/school of thought known as Wahhabism and adopted by Taliban, is funded and promoted using the petro dollars earned by royal families of UAE, Saudi and Qatar. 

These are also the same countries that have given de-facto recognition to their movement of converting Afghanistan into an Islamic emirate with a different flag. This means that the ideology, used for social restructuring is now slowly and gradually turning itself into a political movement for restructuring the constitution of Afghanistan.

This ideology is promoted by madrasas in Pakistan. Every Friday, after the assembly prayers are over, these Masjids and Madrasas on the other side of the Durand line collect money from the devout followers in the name of donation (zakat) for the welfare of the Muslims in Afghanistan. However, this money is then channelized to provide reinforcements to the Taliban fighters in terms on man, material, weaponry etc.

*//This article is copy pasted without any changes//* When Afghanistan was going through a process of destabilisation after the withdrawal of Soviet Troops, Pakistan needed to gain its influence over Afghanistan. For this purpose, it needed a force loyal to it and brutal enough to fight the mighty Northern Alliance of Afghanistan. The Madrasas proved to be an ideal recruiting ground for the Pakistan ISI and a new breed of terror was created -the Taliban. Over next few years, these seminaries were converted into arms and bomb-making factories and terrorist training centres with the help of Pakistan Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI). The only one responsible for these crimes was the Pakistan government which turned these religious seminaries into terror factories. Later, these madrasas provided numerous cadres of Al-Qaeda and more than 1 lakh fighters to the Afghan Taliban. Not only this, they continued to provide terrorists and suicide bombers for the ongoing terror activities in Afghanistan, India and the Middle East.  Many ISIS cadres also came out from some of these madrasas. These madrasas soon became an easy and effective training centre of Pakistan's ISI. The border between Pakistan and Afghanistan is extremely porous and facilitates easy movement of even a large force across as there is no surveillance. Hence, this was a major advantage for Pakistan ISI to run madrasas in these areas. These terror factories are not run on mere donations of the public but receive massive funds from the Pakistan government as well as the Middle Eastern countries. A Times of India news report said, in 2016, Pakistan's Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa government gave Rs 300 million to one of the prominent madrasa, also known as the 'University of Jihad'. The madrasa is known to have many Taliban leader among its alumni. Not only this, it has been alleged that the agents of the Pakistan government often compel and even kidnap Afghan children to study in these madrasas so that they can be taught the most violent form of Islam and turned into a deadly fighter. As per a report published in the Deccan Chronicle (dated 31 Jul 2017), Afghan police caught an organised syndicate which used to traffic young boys to the madrasas across the border in Pakistan from interiors of Afghanistan. They recovered a large number of Afghan boys who were being taken to Pakistan to study in these madrasas against their own will. This proves that Pak support to these madrasas is not only limited to indoctrination but also providing them with manpower, military training, funds and other forms of logistical support. Today, there are over 15000 madrasas being run on Pak- Afghan border out of which more than 60% are in Baluchistan alone. The reason is obvious, the most important aspect of Taliban or their ideological hub which is called as Quetta Shura is located in the Baluchistan province itself. This is the group which is managing a large number of madrasas in the area. Surprisingly, nearly all of them are teaching either the Deobandi Philosophy of Islam or Salafi ideology, both are extremely violent and most radical forms of Islam. As of now, nearly all attacks or violence in Afghanistan is traced back to one or the other madrasas in Pakistan. As per the statement made by the Afghan Ambassador in the US, Mr Majeed Qarar, the attack on Kabul’s Intercontinental Hotel was also planned in one such madrasa in Pakistan. He quoted the video of the father of one of the suicide attackers who visited the madrasa many times to bring their son back but he was so badly brain-washed that he refused to come back with them. There have been allegations substantiated by evidences that Pakistan had been providing equipment and weapons to terrorists in Afghanistan. During the recent attack on Maiwand Army Base of Afghanistan, the night vision goggles recovered from terrorists reveal the entire story. They were made by a company in Britain and procured by Pak Army for their military operations. Now, how they reached these terrorists, the question reveals the answer itself.  In March 2016, Pak PM’s advisor Mr Sartaz Ajeez himself accepted that “These madrasas had well-oiled terror infrastructure, beyond imagination, running bomb-making factories, terrorists training centres and those to train suicide bombers - all under multi-storeyed basement under the mosque” which proves the fact that these madrasas are really operating as terror factories. He further mentioned that "In one mosque that I visited, I remember, in Miranshah, from outside we did not see anything. But under the mosque, there were a 70-room basement, three stories, in which there were four-five IED factories, four-five suicide training centres, communication network, VIP room, conference rooms, amazing infrastructure," This is very horrifying, to say the least. The world is surprised to know how these terror factories are still able to run on Pakistani soil smoothly. Pakistan government may deny their association with them but, at last, they are openly operating on their land and making a mockery of their law. Moreover, the victims of these terror factories are only the poor and innocent Afghan population and not Pakistan. -       Major Amit Bansal           Source: Wion News

“Even today the Taliban’s harsh and austere fundamentalism does not appeal to a majority of Afghans. Radical Islam has been kept alive in Afghanistan, however, by a combination of ethno-tribal dynamics and external factors, notably Pakistan’s desire to control Afghan foreign policy”. -       Husain Haqqani Pakistan's ambassador to the United States from 2008-11 Director for South and Central Asia at the Hudson Institute (Washington D.C.)

So, what will be the reaction of a Pashtun, who realises this double game played by Pakistani ISI under the umbrella of Islam? Pakistani ISI wants to maintain their influence through such proxy groups (followers of Wahhabi fundamentalist ideology) who owe loyalty to them. When he comes to power, would he like to maintain close relations with Pakistan? Does this explain the deterioration of relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan and the reactions of both the Presidents in Afghanistan towards Pakistan?

(Both the persons, the ex-President Hamid Karzai and current ruling President of Afghanistan Ashraf Ghani come from Pashtun tribe).

For Pakistan, Islam is a strategic tool. However, it doesn’t want to embolden Islamists on its own soil. They don’t want Afghan Taliban to help Pakistan Taliban. Pakistan also hosts the highest number of Afghan refugees. It is apprehensive that if Taliban comes to power, there are chances that it may trigger another civil war in Afghanistan that will dramatically increase the number of refugees. But these problems are supposed to be managed by democratically elected government. But wait… Who calls the shots in Pakistan? ISI or the democratically elected government?

ISI wants to dominate the polity of Afghanistan. They influence elections in Afghanistan so that the Taliban members occupy high positions inside the government. The peace talks by the Americans with Afghan Taliban will embolden them. This is because, it will give a de-facto legitimacy to their social movement. Should India be apprehensive about it or should India support these peace talks? We shall discuss this later. But, at the same time… This will also dilute the relevance of Pakistan, as they will lose their grip on Afghan Taliban. This is due to the fact, that Afghan Taliban is actually closer to India than their masters in Pakistan. Pakistan suffers from hysteresis that India is trying to place itself in its strategic hinterland/backyard (i.e. Afghanistan). By keeping it unstable using its proxy groups that are loyal to Pakistani ISI, it wants to maintain a strategic depth inside Afghanistan. Let us understand this with an example. When the government of India led by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi, revoked Article 370 to integrate Kashmir with the union of India, Pakistan immediately tried to divert the world attention by claiming that this would dilute the peace talks between US and Taliban. However, in less than 24 hours, the Afghan Taliban spokesman Zabihullah Mujahed gave a statement not to link Kashmir issue with Afghanistan. For their masters in Pakistan, is this a sign of rebellion or gratitude? Afghan Taliban are supported by Pakistani ISI but they are not bondage of Pakistan. The government of India is convinced that the Taliban movement is not directed against India. It is regional phenomenon directed against Western forces on the soil of Afghanistan. Afghan Taliban have also shown an open support for TAPI gas pipeline. Their response towards energy transit trade and transport agreements by other neighbours reflects the mindset of the Taliban. It shows that their movement is directed to bring changes in social order and not the economic order. They even want the foreign aid by donor countries including India to continue, after the Americans exit Afghanistan. So, why are the Taliban, now opening up for peace talks? It is believed that this is due to persuasion from their masters in Pakistan, who want to ease the pressure in their home country. Pakistan is passing through a very tough economic condition.

Difference between Afghan Taliban and Pakistan Taliban

	Afghan Taliban	Pakistan Taliban
History	Emerged from Kandahar in Afghanistan (Pashtun) after Soviet defeat while the country was in peril with no government, infrastructure and hope. Afghan Taliban under the leadership of Mullah Omer emerged as group that helped people while Afghanistan was in civil war. This made Taliban popular initially. By 1996 they had taken control of most of Afghanistan.	Post 911, when US invaded Afghanistan in 2001, almost all the al-Qaeda operatives crossed the Durand line to take refuge in Pakistan’s tribal region. The tribal/s follow Pashtunwali code of conduct that prioritises hospitality regardless of background (despite Pakistan’s opposition). Since, Pakistan was working as an accomplice of United States in this war against al-Qaeda, these al-Qaeda operatives and their sympathizers (now inside the FATA region of Pakistani soil) started creating groups to retaliate against Pakistan. By 2006 they had taken control of tribal region and in 2007 joined together as one single group under Baitullah Mehsud as “Pakistani Taliban”, to launch an all-out attack on Pakistani government.
Ideology	Deobandi fundamentalists. They do not have a global agenda unlike ISIS and Al Qaeda. They only want to take control of Afghanistan and do not want outside intervention. From their perspective, the democratically elected Afghan government is nothing more than a puppet of the US and serves as an extension of Western imposed Islam.	Deobandi fundamentalists. TTP is a composite of various ideologies and purposes. This includes ·         overthrowing the Pakistani government ·         establishment of Sharia in Pakistan ·         providing volunteers to fight against India
Enemies	Their fight is against US, NATO and the Afghan government (which they refuse to recognize as legitimate).	They are fighting only against Pakistan army and Pakistan government. However, they too want the Pakistani government to break its ties with Washington immediately.
Alliances	Afghan Taliban have a policy of not interfering in the internal matters of either Iran or Pakistan which are their neighbouring countries. This may be because, both these countries are helping them in terms of weaponry and other reinforcements to bleed USA on Afghan soil.	Pakistan has accused India and Afghanistan of supporting TTP. The accusation against India does not have a compelling evidence, however there is evidence or signs that Afghan intelligence which has ties with India uses TTP as a proxy against Pakistan.

The Federally administered Tribal Areas (FATA) region in Pakistan (also known as SWAT VALLEY) has high ridges, deep ravines and virtually no infrastructure. This makes it a difficult environment for conducting successfully counter-insurgency operations. In 2014, Pakistan launched a grand operation Zarb e Azb to clear tribal region and finish TTP. In the beginning, they asked the afghan Taliban to provide support which they refused. Pakistani ISI and Afghan Taliban seem to have very good mutual understanding. Pakistan never attacked Afghan Taliban and they have never attacked Pakistan. ISI has no interest in territorially united Afghanistan. They prefer a controlled instability in Afghanistan that keeps Afghan Taliban in power but also keep them dependent on ISI. This will help to undercut the Indian influence in Afghanistan. TTP then allied themselves with ISIS, once they got confirmed that Afghan Taliban won’t come to their rescue. As a show of strength, a faction of TTP that is allied with ISIS known as Jamat al Ahrar, led an attack on army school in Peshawar which killed 149 people including 132 children. This shows that the Pakistani government does not appear to have a civil-military plan in place to deal with the consequences of such a military operation, which would most likely displace hundreds of thousands of people.

Currently, TTP movement is restricted to FATA regions only on both the sides of the Durand Line. It is believed that they are re-grouping themselves in Eastern Afghanistan and will strike back on the army and the government in Pakistan, when they believe that they are in a strong position. Their continued presence provides friendly operational space for the Afghan Taliban and other ideological travellers. These forces are bent on retaking power in Kabul after the US troop withdrawal this year. Experts in India strongly believe that the only way for the United States to defeat Taliban and Al-Qaeda is by entering into Pakistan and destroying these safe havens. The only reason why the United States kept failing is because it was never decisive to launch attacks within the soil of Pakistan.

Russia - Iran peace process with Taliban With increasing insecurity in Pakistan due to improving technological capabilities and modernisation of Indian armed forces, Pakistan is trying to find a new security partner against India. Who can they be? But obvious… It can be either Chinese or the Russians. The Chinese are also waging a war against radicalists in Xinjiang region dominated by Uyghur Muslims. (There is a debate if the ‘East Turkistan Islamic Movement (ETIM)’ is a successionist movement to establish a separate state or a movement to overpower the government and establish a Sharia based rule). Similar is the case with Chechens in Russia. Till date, the Chechen fighters are using Afghan camps.  (However, in case of Russia, the expatriates from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan are also witnessed preaching fundamentalist versions of Islam in Masjids on Friday, wherein Muslims offer prayers in assembly). Since 2015, it was witnessed that these people are joining ISIS in large numbers. This maybe due to repressive policies of the union government in those countries. Do we find such equivalence in Kashmir where ASFPA is creating havoc? For these countries, viz. Iran, China and Russia, Talibans are a lesser evil compared to ISIS. As discussed earlier, Talibans are indigenous Pashtuns. They are localised and are solely Afghan phenomenon. From their perspective, if Talibans are compared with ISIS, Russians believe that Talibans are quasi-responsible and can serve a counterbalance to ISIS. (ISIS is a global movement to impose sharia) In 2015, ISIS made their presence felt in Afghanistan which was not welcomed by the Afghan Taliban. The leader of ISIS (Abu Bakr Al Baghdadi) calls himself “Khalifa” meaning leader of all Muslims in the world. This challenges and undermines the title of Taliban leader who calls himself “Amir” Leader of Muslims in Afghanistan. Hence there is natural rivalry and ISIS challenges the ideology and authority of Afghan Taliban as legitimate representative of Afghanistan. Afghan Taliban are already fighting ISIS operatives in Afghanistan. And the route to engage with Afghan Taliban goes via Islamabad. So, post 2015, when ISIS started attacking certain metro cities in Russian federation, the Russians got worried. At this moment, Russia is unable to afford a protracted war in Syria, Georgia, Ukraine because of its current economic conditions that is already half wrecked by US led sanctions. And therefore, it would be unwise for it to engage in further war. In 2015, Russia opened a route for ISIS in Caucasus. It is believed that they did this, so that the ISIS fighters fight their wars in Syria and do not start their nefarious activities within the former Soviet Republics and itself. A classic example wherein you shift the trouble on someone else’ shoulders to save yourself from it. At the global level too, Russia struggles to prove to both India and China that it is still a major power that is worthy of alliance. Russia is also worried that India is gravitating more and more towards USA. They know their limits and are also aware about the fact that USA has far more to offer to India in terms of capacity and capability building in economic, military arm sales, logistics. Hence, the relations with Pakistan serve three purposes at the same time for Russia. First it helps them to engage with Afghan Taliban to restrict the ISIS phenomenon within Afghanistan itself. Secondly this also serves as a warning to India as if “Don’t get too much close to Washington”. And thirdly, engagement with Pakistan and Afghan Taliban also helps them to prove that it is still an influential external player in Afghanistan and South Asia. And therefore, it cannot be discounted in any case. This explains the increasing warmth in relations between Russia and Pakistan. (cooperation in Afghanistan, energy sales, weapons, joint training) The flip side is, this engagement with proxy groups and interference within the domestic politics of Afghanistan that bypasses the role of democratically elected government makes this country a very unfortunate one. For the Russians, Iranians and the Chinese, the solution to Afghanistan doesn’t lie with the elected government.  They believe, it can be achieved by re-constituting the government (as if Taliban will play a responsible role and cease terrorism…Lolz)

Russia is strengthening its own military presence in Central Asia. It conducts joint exercises and provides weapons at subsidised rates to C5 countries. At the same time, it is also providing new weapons and intelligence to Taliban and Tajiks in northern Afghanistan. Russia is now cooperating with Iran to convert Taliban into a political movement. In 2015, Russia and Iran coordinated their meetings with Taliban at Al-Ansar center in Zahedan. This was inaugurated by Mullah Omar Mansour who was later on killed in US led drone strike. For both these countries, the aim is to protect their own interests by developing Taliban as a buffer to stop Daesh before it reaches their borders. Iran is also training Afghan Shias, so that they can defend themselves against any unforeseen circumstances, once the United States withdraws its military from the Afghan soil. Iran is already providing electricity to Western Afghanistan and South West Afghanistan for strategic reasons. Iran enjoys a considerable amount of influence in the Herat province of Afghanistan that borders Iran. This region is also known as mini-Iran since you can find an extraordinary level of similarity in the designs of shawls and carpets manufactured in Iran and the ones that are made here. We even find ‘Iranian Rial’ in circulation here in this province. The bulk of Iranian investment in this region goes for the development infrastructure projects, road and bridge construction, education, agriculture, power generation, and telecommunications. Iran has helped rebuild Afghanistan’s radio and television infrastructure and has increased its own radio and television programs in Dari. Iran's economic aid to Afghanistan does not conflict with U.S. efforts to develop Afghanistan. Iran has pledged about $1 billion in aid to Afghanistan, of which about $500 million has been provided to date. Iran has developed power transmission lines in the provinces bordering Iran. Some of the funds reportedly are funneled through the Imam Khomeini Relief Committee, which provides charity worldwide. Following the completion of a highway from its border with Afghanistan, Tehran financed an extension linking Herat to Afghanistan’s remote northern provinces. In 2009, a plethora of Iranian-built schools, health clinics and business centers around Herat were connected to the Iranian interior due to an $80 million railroad project. Herat’s bazaars are filled with Iranian products, and the presence of the Islamic Republic Guard Corps (IRGC) through the Iranian Consulate is openly visible. In addition, hundreds of trucks cross from Iran to Herat and vice-versa on a daily basis. The United States is suspicious of activities of Russians and Iranians in Afghanistan. Post 911, the strategy of these two countries can be summarised like this. They all wanted the US to stay in Afghanistan (so that Talibans stay in check) but at the same time, none of them wanted the US to succeed fully (otherwise US will then divert its entire energy towards them). Afghanistan is the only unfortunate country in the world where the US wants to promote democracy but all the neighbours surrounding Afghanistan are anti-US who do not want the US to succeed. They want to retain their influence which they do by using proxy groups loyal to them. What is the stand of India? India was living in a virtual world that US is going to stay forever in Afghanistan post 911. Its policy in Afghanistan is akin to a museum where they see everything but don’t want to touch it. This is also because, India is a risk averse country. It capitalises on soft power in Afghanistan. Experts say that at the minimum level, we should start talking to the tribal chiefs, the governors of the provinces and warlords in Afghanistan who can provide security to our contractors. Please note that this does not mean endorsing their ideologies. But maintain a back channel with them. Currently, the government within Afghanistan is fragile. It is unable to provide services that can live up to the expectations of the people. This is visible from the fact that even after Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF) capture areas controlled by Taliban, they are unable to retain it. The government is not even financially strong. It is mostly dependent of foreign aid. In summary, the fact that government exists in Afghanistan, doesn’t necessarily mean that it is also capable enough to provide good quality of governance. In some cases, the students take it for granted that soft power is the only option with India. Let us understand this in a more concise way. Hard power and soft power are merely the tools, in the portfolio of diplomacy to exert the influence. The higher the variety of options, the better. This diversity helps customise and fine tune the policy of the country towards the other nations. On behalf of the country, a diplomat should know which buttons he/she should press to get the desired results. Hence, it is not a thumb rule that, today we are exercising soft power implies that, we should stick to it forever. Additionally, we should not always wait to see what US will do. Rather India should go further and explore what we should do and what we want to do. This requires proper homework than an ad-hoc response or a reaction. Can India work with Iran? The military of Iran (Islamic Republic of), also known as the Islamic Republic Guard Corps (IRGC) has an elite unit known as the Quds force (QF). The IRGC-QF organized between 10,000 and 15,000 Afghan militants (most of them following Shia faith of Islam) under the Fatemiyoun Brigade (named after Fatima, daughter of the Prophet Muhammad) and deployed them to Syria to fight alongside pro-Assad forces. A new Iranian law now also allows the government of Iran to grant citizenship to families of Afghans who got martyred fighting on behalf of Iran in the Syrian civil war. The law is likely an attempt to attract recruits for Liwa Fatemiyoun, Liwa Zainabiyoun and Liwa Abu al-Fadhal al-Abbas brigade. These forces are formed, trained and operated by Iran’s Revolutionary Guards. Even though the majority of Afghans in this region are Sunnis, there is a significant Shiite population in Afghanistan that cannot be discounted. Sufis do exist in Afghanistan, albeit in small pockets. They are politically strong and influential. However, the flipside is that the Shia Muslims under discussion is not only limited to Afghanistan. It also carries a spill over effect upon the 1.4 million Shia Muslims who make up 15 percent of the entire population of Indian-administered Kashmir. They are mostly concentrated in the Budgam district of Central Kashmir, parts of Srinagar and Kargil. A number of veterans of fighting against ISIS in Fallujah and Mosul have now returned to Kashmir (Source: Haaretz, August 05, 2019, ‘Iran and Saudi Arabia's Proxy Wars Have a New Battlefield: Indian-controlled Kashmir’).

India’ contribution in Afghanistan

India wants to show to its neighbours that the rise of India is good for all of them and they too can benefit by cooperating with her. In order to do this, India uses SAARC and other platforms and wants to create Afghanistan as a textbook example for the neighbours to buy this claim.

Iran has its own share of concerns in Afghanistan. By virtue of its geography, it fits perfectly in India’ geographic puzzle. India and Iran are constructing a highway that connects Chabahar port of Iran to the ring road in Afghanistan.

The Afghan ring road also known as the Garland road is the most vital peace of infrastructure for Afghanistan reconstruction and development. Afghanistan is a landlocked country with high density of physical barriers that impedes connectivity and linkages with transnational markets. Access to this ring road is possible only through certain entry and exit points.

For India, the closest ports that can facilitate the movement of goods and development of enterprises in Afghanistan are Karachi and Gwadar (in Pakistan) and Chabahar port that can connect to the ring road from the West in Afghanistan. The road connecting Iran and Afghanistan known as Delaram Zaranj highway is almost ready.

Afghanistan needs both the ports to connect itself with the gulf countries. It should be noted that Afghanistan is also one among the poorest countries all over the world. Since there is lack of economic activity, almost every second person migrates to Kabul to earn his living.

As visible from the map, Afghanistan is endowed with natural resources, including extensive deposits of natural gas, petroleum, coal, copper, iron ore, and precious stones. Unfortunately, ongoing instability in the country, rugged terrain, and an inadequate infrastructure and transportation network have made mining these resources difficult.

In order to reduce her dependence on foreign aid, it is necessary to bring these goods in and out of Afghanistan to the markets, where demand exists. For this reason, improving the condition of the ring road is the first necessary step. However, frequent kidnapping of the contractors and labourers working on the ring road by Talibans derails the work already done. To improve the confidence of contractors working on the 218-kilometer Delaram-Zeranj highway project funded by India, the Indian government too had to deploy 400 Indo Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) soldiers in Afghanistan (which… as usual was taken by Pakistan in a negative way)

Curently, there are 300 ITBP commandos stationed at these five locations. Indian Embassy in Kabul and its four consulates in Jalalabad, Mazar- e-Sharif, Kandahar and Herat.

India has invested in Hajigak mine in Afghanistan while China has invested in Aynak mine in Afghanistan. In terms of economic feasibility, trucks are not economically viable in long run. This requires long distance railway investments in Afghanistan, which is feasible only if the volume of products transported is in bulk. Additionally, electricity is essential to operate these railways. In this case scenario, it is soothing to find that even wants to invest in mining iron reserves in Afghanistan. As the mineral resources from Sangan iron ore mine on the Iranian soil are nearing depletion, Iran is willing to invest in the Afghanistan part of the mine to fulfil its need of raw materials for its factories.

Hence, with security interests in mind, both India and Iran are also finding a common ground to cooperate on economic platforms.

Prior to 2011, India limited its involvement in Afghanistan to development issues. India is the fifth-largest single country donor to Afghan reconstruction, funding projects worth over $2 billion. At the NATO summit in Brussels in October 2016, India pledged an additional $1 billion for Afghanistan development needs.

Indian officials assert that their projects are focused on civilian, not military, development and are in line with the development priorities set by the Afghan government. Prime Minister Modi visited Afghanistan in December 2015 and June 2016 to inaugurate India-sponsored projects (a new parliament complex in Kabul and the Afghan-India Friendship Dam in Herat province, respectively). In addition, India

·         along with the Asian Development Bank, financed a $300 million project, mentioned above, to bring electricity from Central Asia to Afghanistan.
·         renovated the well-known Habibia High School in Kabul.
·         signed, in May 2016, with Iran and Afghanistan, the "Chahbahar Agreement" under which India will invest $500 million to develop Iran's Chahbahar port on the Arabian Sea. That port will facilitate increased trade between India and Afghanistan, bypassing Pakistan.
·         In December 2011, the Indian firm Steel Authority of India, Ltd. (SAIL) won a bid for three of four blocks of the Hajigak iron ore project in Bamiyan Province.
·         helped Afghanistan's Independent Directorate of Local Governance (IDLG) with its efforts to build local governance organizations, and it provides 1,000 scholarships per year for Afghans to undergo higher education in India. Some Afghans want to enlist even more Indian assistance in training Afghan bureaucrats in accounting, forensic accounting, oversight, and other disciplines that will promote transparency in Afghan governance.

Other contributions of India include construction of the parliament in Afghanistan, foreign aid and donations among which India is the fifth largest donor, transmission line from Phul-e-Khumri to Kabul, expansion of national television network, women’ vocational training in Bagh e Zamana, reconstruction of hospitals, roads, railways and highways etc. India can also contribute in social sectors like education, medical and health etc. Agriculture and solar energy are other examples where India has already gained mastery but has not explored these options for cooperation in Afghanistan. This should not be taken as the end of India’ engagement with Afghanistan. A lot of scope exists for India to expand its soft power in Afghanistan by helping them in training and capacity building of Afghan police, bureaucracy, banking and financial sector etc.

Post arrival of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, both the countries are also collaborating in defence sectors. This is in direct contrast to India’ policy of not supplying weaponry to Afghanistan in the year 2013, to avoid itself getting involved in the conflict in Afghanistan or alarm Pakistan. This event happened in the immediate aftermath of Afghanistan-Pakistan border clashes in May 2013.

·         Afghanistan has one of the highest mortality rates in the world. One in five children dies before the age of five and one out of every eight Afghan women die from causes related to pregnancy and childbirth each year ·         Life expectancy is only 44 years for both men and women

India's goals in Afghanistan appear to be, at least in part, to limit Pakistan's influence in Afghanistan. India saw the Afghan Taliban's hosting of Al Qaeda during 1996-2001 as a major threat because of Al Qaeda's association with radical Islamic organizations in Pakistan that seek to end India's control of part of the disputed territories of Jammu and Kashmir. Some of these groups have committed major acts of terrorism in India, including the terrorist attacks in Mumbai in November 2008 and in July 2011. Afghanistan has sought close ties to India–in large part to access India's large and rapidly growing economy–but without causing a backlash from Pakistan. In October 2011, Afghanistan and India signed a "Strategic Partnership Agreement". The pact affirmed Pakistani fears by giving India, for the first time, a formal role in Afghan security by providing for India to train Afghan National Defence and Security Forces (ANDSF) personnel, of whom thousands have been trained since 2011. India also donated three Cheetah military helicopters to the Afghan Air Force.

In order to ensure peace in Afghanistan, India should also explore the options to work with other likeminded regional partners like Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. This requires a regional architecture wherein the Afghanistan and its neighbours can discuss the various scopes for cooperation. Currently, SCO is the best institution for regional approach to Afghanistan since all the Afghan neighbours are members of it (except Turkmenistan). Russia and China are at the driver’ seat in SCO. Afghanistan has sought to increase its integration with neighbouring states through participation in other international fora, including: South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), which Afghanistan joined in November 2005; the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), a security coordination body that includes Russia, China, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan, to which Afghanistan was granted full observer status in June 2012; the Regional Economic Cooperation Conference on Afghanistan (RECCA), which was launched in 2005, last met in November 2016 in Istanbul, and will be hosted by Turkmenistan in Ashgabat  in 2017; a "Regional Working Group" initiative, co-chaired by Turkey and UNAMA, which organized the November 2011 Istanbul meeting mentioned above; a "Kabul Silk Road" initiative, led by UNAMA, to promote regional cooperation on Afghanistan; and the still-expanding 50-nation "International Contact Group," through which U.S. officials have sought to enlist regional and greater international support for Afghanistan. In addition, several regional meetings series have been established between the leaders of Afghanistan and neighbouring countries. These include summit meetings between Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Turkey; between Afghanistan, Pakistan, the U.S., and China (the Quadrilateral Coordination Group, or QCG); and between Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan. However, this latter forum ended in mid-2012 after Afghanistan signed the Strategic Partnership Agreement with the United States, which Iran strongly opposed. Currently, there is very little economic cooperation among countries neighbouring Afghanistan. This lack of intra-regional trade further disincentivises the possibility of cooperation among them to bring peace and stability within Afghanistan. Among all the countries neighbouring Afghanistan, Uzbekistan’ growth is substantial. Uzbekistan also has an interest in opening trade and connectivity routes all the way to the Indian Ocean, that would pass through Afghanistan. The Indian council for Cultural Relations (ICCR) is playing a very important role in pro India constituencies in Afghanistan. The local politicians in Afghanistan approach Indian embassy and ICCR with a long list of students willing to come to India to study at various institutes. In return, these people and the students help to improve the reputation of India. Apart from this, India is also giving a lot of visas for medical treatment to the people in Afghanistan. Additionally, India is also supplying prosthetic legs to the people who are wounded in this long Afghan war. Recently, in the year 2018, Uzbekistan pledged to invest in railway network of Afghanistan to expand its infrastructure connectivity that would allow it to get access to the warm waters of the Gulf and the markets in West Asia. To get access via Iran, serious discussions are ongoing with Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank and China (under the Belt and Road initiative) to fund that section of railway line that will connect Uzbekistan with the Iranian port of Chahbahar via Afghanistan. If India partners with Uzbekistan and China, this will bring us following benefits 1.    This would become another major regional connectivity project for India, after its construction of the Zaranj-Delaram Highway in Afghanistan and the Shahid Beheshti port in Chabahar, Iran. 2.    It can also serve as a demonstration of "China-India Plus" model which was recently proposed by Beijing enabling the two Asian giants to cooperate in development and connectivity projects in other countries. Should India invest in this project? The Five Nations Railway Corridor project connects China on one end and Iran on the other over a total distance of 2,100 kilometres, traversing the countries of the Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan in the process. The Afghan section of the rail line will be partially funded by the ADB and improve Afghanistan’s access to the Iranian ports of Chabahar and Bandar Abbas. To improve its connectivity with Karachi and Gwadar, Uzbekistan is also trying to expand the rail-road network that from Mazari-Sharif to Kabul to Peshawar in Pakistan. The stretch of railways connecting Hairatan in Uzbekistan to Mazari Sharif in Afghanistan is already over. Now it is getting extended to Kabul. By connecting Uzbekistan with Kabul, it will also help to improve the prospects of India Afghan air corridor, that will help to bypass Pakistan. Afghanistan- Pakistan Transit Trade (APTTA) Agreement The US made efforts from its side to help reach an agreement between Afghanistan and Pakistan for easier exportation via Pakistan of Afghan products to India. However, Pakistan hasn’t given any approval yet for allowing land transit of Afghan goods to India.  Pakistan, so far, used to allow Afghan trucks to come up to Lahore. But it did not allow these trucks to go up to Wagah nor did it allow them to load Indian goods on their return journey. Even this facility has been stopped by a recent decision that severely restricts truck movement across the Durand Line, the border between Pakistan and Afghanistan. The two countries viz. India and Afghanistan have therefore signed an air corridor agreement. This will help India to circumvent the Pakistan land route to trade with Kabul. Under the same two corridors will be built, one between Delhi and Kabul and the other Kandahar to Delhi - to carry goods at subsidised rates. This is being done to overcome the obstacle set up by Pakistan which does not allow the trucks of these two countries to use its land corridor for trade. Traders will pay 20 cents per kilogram as transport cost for importing from Afghanistan and 40 cents a kilogram to export to Afghanistan. At present, bilateral trade between India and Afghanistan roughly stands at $685 million a year. While India's exports to Afghanistan in 2014-15 were valued at $423 million, its imports from that country were worth $262 million. Despite the lack of direct land access, India is the second-largest destination for Afghan exports. The current Afghan government led by Ashraf Ghani wants to catapult the two-way trade and investment flows to $10 billion a year within the next five years.

Scope for India China cooperation in Afghanistan India wants to ensure peace and stability in Afghanistan so that it doesn’t act as a hub for transnational terrorist groups that threatens India. In essence, this involves working in 4 concentric circles with Afghanistan at the centre. 1.    Facilitating negotiations between USA and Taliban for a complete ceasefire and laying down of arms. 2.    Intra Afghan debate for the framing of new constitution that helps to integrate every section of the society in the mainstream. 3.    Development of regional architecture to act against the transnational terrorist groups and bring goods and materials, in and out of Afghanistan (to help spur economic activity within). 4.    Getting support from the international community in the form of economic aid and/or development package. This will help to reduce the possibility of LeT (Lashkar e Toyba) using Afghanistan as a base to plan terror attacks upon India. This threat finds a certain amount of resonance with the threat faced by China in Xinjiang. China also realises that if the instability within Afghanistan continues, it may lead to attacks on the critical infrastructure projects, now developed under the umbrella of the Belt and Road Initiative. An unstable Afghanistan will act as a hub for the people fighting for secession from China in its Xinjiang province. China also has substantial investment in Aynak copper mine since 2007. The 46 km border, that it shares with Afghanistan is a key to the Aynak Copper Mine. Any instability along this part can derail these investments. A recent investigation revealed that Chinese troops are stationed on Tajikistan’s south eastern border, 30 kilometres from Pakistan-administered Kashmir across Afghanistan’s Wakhan corridor. This may have far reaching consequences and implications for India. Tajikistan may come under ever greater Chinese pressure to yield more and more of its territory or de facto sovereignty to China. This reveals that China wants to improve the capacity and capabilities of its security apparatus beyond its borders. It has started erecting border outposts along Afghan Tajikistan border on the pretext of protecting its Belt and Road infrastructure. China is also engaging with the heads of security services in these countries and plans to conduct joint exercises with their armies. Currently, the only major power that maintains residual forces in C5 countries beyond its own borders is Russia. Naturally, after looking at Chinese encroaching their sphere of influence, they won’t be happy about it. However, for India if this trend continues, this may impede its regional ambitions to showcase its hard power inside in Tajikistan, where it is trying hard to establish its own military base (viz. Ayni and Farkhor).   By working with China, India can achieve two objectives. 1.    It will be able to pressurise Pakistan to shun its terror infrastructure by getting China on its side. China has long maintained silence on Pakistan’ double standards in its war against terror. 2.    India will be able to learn their (Chinese) culture and mindset. This will help in building confidence among the two countries. In their meeting in Wuhan held in the year 2018, the leaders of both the countries viz. India and Pakistan, the Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi and Chinese President, Xi Jinping agreed to cooperate in Afghanistan. China is already conducting a QUAD dialogue on Afghanistan, that includes itself, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Should India request China to involve her as an observer member?

How is India affected by drugs originating from Afghanistan?

Have you watched the movie Udta Punjab?

Let us understand why the problem of drugs is so much immense in Punjab. It is not only restricted to Punjab. In reality this problem is now spreading to places like Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.

An estimated 85% or Afghans are dependent on agriculture and related agribusinesses for their livelihoods. Opium poppy production and the opium trade continue to have a significant monetary share of the country’s agricultural economy. This share and the number of farmers growing poppy can be reduced if they are provided opportunities to produce and market alternative crops.

Most of these drugs are produced in Taliban controlled regions because they do not have a decent source of income. The countries in closest proximity to Afghanistan are India and Pakistan on the East of it, Iran towards the West and Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan on the North of it. These countries serve as transit routes by the drug mafias, who try to export this illegally in Europe and Russia. On the same routes, the consumption is found to be the highest leading to a loss of productive human capital. There is a lot of scope for intelligence cooperation within SCO to restrict these drug mafias from sending the drugs into other countries.

These drugs are also the major source of finance for the Talibans. Hence by cutting off this oxygen line, it will also help to reduce their activities.

The Taliban of 1991 and the Taliban of 2019 are different. From being armed militias that destroyed schools, courts and medical clinics, today it is supporting them. They are doing this to display their governance skills so that it can present itself as a credible player in the future of Afghanistan.

Heart of Asia conference (2016)

The United States has encouraged Afghanistan's neighbors to support a stable and economically viable Afghanistan and to include Afghanistan in regional security and economic organizations and platforms. The Administration first obtained formal pledges from Afghanistan's neighbors to noninterference in Afghanistan at an international meeting on Afghanistan in Istanbul on November 2, 2011 ("Istanbul Declaration") and again at the December 5, 2011, Bonn Conference (held on the 10th anniversary of the Bonn Conference that formed the post-Taliban government).

As a follow-up to the Istanbul Declaration, confidence-building measures by Afghanistan's neighbors were discussed at a Kabul ministerial conference on June 14, 2012, which is now known as the "Heart of Asia" ministerial process. The Heart of Asia process involves 14 regional countries, 14 supporting countries, and 11 regional and international organizations that agreed to jointly fight terrorism and drug trafficking and pursue economic development. The most recent Heart of Asia meetings were in Islamabad in December 2015 and Amritsar, India, on December 4, 2016; the next annual conference (the seventh) will be held in Azerbaijan.

In the year 2016, India hosted the conference, ‘Heart of Asia (HoA)’ on its own soil in Amritsar. The conference was aimed at speeding up reconstruction in war-torn Afghanistan and bringing peace and normalcy to the nation. It saw the participation from 14 states: Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, China, India, Iran, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Pakistan, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Tajikistan, Turkey, Turkmenistan and the United Arab Emirates.

The HoA process, supported by the wider international community, originated under the aegis of the Istanbul Conference in November 2011, which underscored the need for regional cooperation and confidence-building to resolve underlying problems facing Afghanistan and anchoring the state’s development in a regional environment that is stable, economically integrated and conducive to shared prosperity. New Delhi too has repeatedly underscored the need for improving connectivity in the region to help Afghanistan harness its trade and transit potential.

Turkey is a big supporter for regional economic cooperation in Afghanistan as it wants to become a transit hub along the routes that connect South Asia and Eastern Europe. Additionally, as an inheritor of Ottoman empire, Turkey wants to reclaim the lost glory and wants to become an influential player in the region.

"I dream of a day, while retaining our respective national identities, one can have breakfast in Amritsar, lunch in Lahore and dinner in Kabul. That is how my forefathers lived. That is how I want our grandchildren to live. I earnestly hope that relations between our two countries become so friendly, and that we generate such an atmosphere of trust between each other, that the two nations would be able to agree on a Treaty of Peace, Security and Friendship" ex-Prime Minister Manmohan Singh at an event organised by the industry body FICCI in the year 2007. Eight years later in the year 2015, the ruling Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi made a surprise visit to Lahore on the way from Kabul to Delhi. Albeit in reverse, he helped to realise the former PM’s dream. Additionally, Amritsar is a place with a historical heritage. It lies on Grand Trunk road that was developed by Sher Shah Suri connecting Mathura in the East to Kabul in the West during the 16th century. The aim of choosing Amritsar was showcase shared and common heritage between India and Afghanistan. In that conference, Afghan President Ashraf Ghani accused Pakistan of launching an "undeclared war" on his country by covertly supporting several terror networks including the Taliban. He stated a top Taliban commander admitting that unless terror sanctuaries were allowed in Pakistan, the outfit will not last even a month. It was interesting to see that Pakistan offered $500 million for development in Afghanistan, which Afghanistan refused. Afghanistan turned the tables upon Pakistan by bluntly telling it to use the same money to dismantle the terror infrastructure on her own soil. Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi also called for "resolute action" not just against forces of terrorism but also against those who support, shelter, train and finance them.

Heart of Asia conference adopted 'Amritsar Declaration', that focussed on countering terror and enhancing regional economic cooperation. ·         The three big issues of the conference were countering terrorism to create stability in Afghanistan, providing Afghanistan connectivity to strengthen economic activities and the development which is essential for its progress. ·         The declaration recognised terrorism as the biggest threat to peace and security and demanded immediate end to all forms of terrorism and all support financial and safe havens providing sanctuary to it. ·         The declaration states the urgency to respond to the nexus between drug menace and its financial support for terrorist entities in Afghanistan. It reiterated strong support from Heart of Asia countries for use of Afghanistan’s location to enhance wider and regional economic cooperation and welcomed the MOU on jointly building the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road between China and Afghanistan. ·         The declaration called for early finalisation of the draft comprehensive convention on international terrorism. It also looks at the early meeting of experts to discuss a draft regional counter terrorism framework strategy, recently prepared by Afghanistan for its early finalisation. ·         The declaration welcomed agreements between the international community and Afghanistan for continued financial support to the Afghanistan National Defence and Security Forces (ANDSF) until 2020.

The five pillars of Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s foreign policy are ·         Sammaan: Respect for every nation’s sovereignty; ·         Samvaad: Greater engagement with all countries; ·         Suraksha: India is a responsible power; ·         Samriddhi: Shared prosperity; ·         Sanskriti and Sabhyata: The persuasive reach of cultural values anchored in a philosophy which believes that the world is a family.

The Northern Distribution Network and transportation revolution in Eurasia

Post 911, The United States led Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) with its armed forces and NATO coalition allies, later known as International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). The top five contributors were/are the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Jordan and Romania. Since Afghanistan is a landlocked country, it does not have any deep-water ports. This leaves the US and NATO coalition at the mercy of neighbouring countries to transport supplies in and out of Afghanistan. This can be done through either of these two routes.

1.    Cargo can go south through Karachi port in Pakistan (Pakistan Ground Lines of Communication or PAKGLOC)

or

2.    Cargo can go north through Central Asia and Russia through the Northern Distribution Network (NDN) — a 5,000-km network of road, rail, and sea routes through Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Russia.

The United States made multiple refuelling arrangements with the neighbouring countries to escort its air and ground forces in Afghanistan. Other than that, the other ISAF troop contributing nations also made bilateral arrangements with the transit countries under the overarching NATO arrangements and among themselves. This has led to a new transportation revolution in Eurasia which was left underdeveloped outdated after the fall of the Soviet Union. The resulting web of transport networks through the former Soviet Union, with Uzbekistan and Tajikistan as its penultimate stopping points was called Northern Distribution Network or NDN.

Till 2009, the US was dependent only on Pakistan. However, when the US launched a scathing attack across the Durand line on suspected militants harbouring inside Pakistan, Pakistan got furious and denied using its soil for transporting equipment in and out of Afghanistan. The US and its allies therefore NDN as an alternative to Pakistan.

Pre 2015, the NDN was developed as a network only for transporting military logistics. However, with experiences gained by NATO while transporting non-lethal cargoes through NDN, it realised that the investment in that infrastructure could be made sustainable by increasing the volume of cargo passing through it. At this time, the US and NATO started realising that the logistics along NDN can be more than military and they decided to start commercialising it. Combined with overlapping pressures and sometimes conflicting interests from the government and business enterprises, the institutions and stake holders then slowly started diversifying their incomes by becoming part of the supply chain in NDN network.

·         Russia was anxious that it will be side lined in NDN. It doesn’t want to become a peripheral country and therefore cooperated with USA on NDN network. ·         However, post 2015 Russia started believing that US is trying to project its power in its backyard and trying to encircle it. This made them sceptical of US intentions in Eurasia. Russians were then witnessed to be collaborating with US only on economic platforms but hardly cooperated fully on security issues. ·         The key component in NDN travels through Russia where the US in most exposed. Russia uses this as a leverage over its fight against the West. It can close the route and make US troops in Afghanistan vulnerable.

Key regional Facilities used for Operations in and Supply Lines to Afghanistan Facility Use Peter Ganci Base: Manas, Kyrgyzstan Was used by 1,200 U.S. military personnel supporting operations in Afghanistan. Kyrgyz governments on several occasions demanded large increase in U.S. payments for its use. Kyrgyz parliament voted in June 2013 not to extend the U.S. lease beyond 2014 and U.S. forces vacated the facility on June 4, 2014. Uzbekistan Karsi-Khanabad Air Base used by US (till 2005) and Germany (from 2009 till date). In early 2009 Uzbekistan allowed the use of its Navoi airfield for shipment of U.S./NATO goods into Afghanistan. Uzbekistan also built new railway lines connecting itself to Afghanistan with the help of Asian Development Bank (ADB). It connects Hairatan in Uzbekistan with Mazari Sharif in Afghanistan. Kazakhstan Since 2001, Kazakhstan has allowed the use of its air facilities for operations in Afghanistan but only in case of emergency. In May 2011, Kazakhstan became the first Central Asian state to pledge forces to Afghanistan (four noncombat troops). In 2010, Kazakhstan agreed to allow U.S. over flights of lethal military equipment to Afghanistan, enabling U.S. aircraft to fly materiel directly from the United States to Bagram Airfield. Kazakhstan funded a $50 million program to develop Afghan professionals. Tajikistan Some use of air bases and other facilities by coalition partners, and emergency use by U.S. permitted. India also uses Tajikistan air bases under separate agreement. The Panj bridge, built largely with U.S. funds, has become a major thoroughfare for goods to move between Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Russia Allowed nonlethal equipment (food, water and construction material) bound for Afghanistan to transit Russia by rail during 20062014, as part of "Northern Distribution Network."

Today, we are witnessing that the amount of trade flowing from Afghanistan to and through the Central Asian states is increasing. Afghanistan earns transit fees and customs duties from this commerce.

India is connecting INSTC with these corridors while China is connecting its Belt and Road initiative. At the same time, Turkey is connecting its Iron Silk road project while Russia is connecting its Eurasian Economic Union infrastructure to integrate Central Asia with itself. There is so much investment happening there… WTF are we doing in Indo-Pacific when the global trade is becoming continental once again?

Indo Pacific is a misnomer. The real purpose of India is to protect its economic security by protecting the trade routes and economic corridors that connect her with global markets. These routes are vital for India to improve its economic prosperity and escape middle income trap. While talking about Indo-Pacific, our ultimate purpose is not to defeat China. It should be first of all, protecting the SLOCs that pass through it.

The NDN has two sections. The northern section originates at the port of Riga on the Baltic Sea, travels along the old Soviet rail network through Russia and Kazakhstan, passes into southern Uzbekistan, and then crosses into Afghanistan at the Termez border. The southern section, known as NDN South, starts at the Georgian port of Poti. Cargo there is placed on rail cars that travel through Georgia and Azerbaijan, then across the Caspian Sea by boat into the port of Aktau in Kazakhstan. From there, the loads are trucked through Uzbekistan.

The US Taliban Peace talks

Back in the year 2012, former US President Barack Obama made a declaration that the US will put itself out of Afghanistan before 2014. This legacy was carry forwarded by ruling President Donald Trump. While the US calls the recent negotiations with Taliban as peace deal, India claims it to be more kind of an exit strategy.

In these peace talks, the Taliban doesn't want to sit with the government. For them, the government is nothing more than a puppet of the United States and illegitimate. The United States has agreed to hold peace talks directly with Taliban behind closed doors without involving the Afghan government. India and the Afghan government have opposed this move since this confers direct legitimacy upon Taliban as a state actor. In their eyes, this is a terror organisation, nurtured by Pakistan for years.

While Pakistan believes that Taliban have a major role in Afghanistan’s future, India’s stance is the group is a non-state actor. To India’s dismay Pakistan is playing a more active role in the discussions. By bringing the recalcitrant Taliban to the negotiating trouble, Pakistan can project itself as an influential player among countries who want to contain the rise of India in the Indian subcontinent.

The United States wants the Taliban to accept the following terms and conditions, if they intend US to leave Afghanistan. This is a package deal, meaning nothing is agreed until everything is agreed.

1.    Negotiate a ceasefire agreement and surrender the arms in exchange for integration in the political process

2.    There won’t be a permanent removal of troops. The US will maintain a token/minimalist presence in Afghanistan (intelligence gathering on China and Iran)

3.    That the Taliban will not provide any safe haven for other transnational terrorist groups.

4.    Securing women rights within the newly framed constitution

However, as is visible from the recent attacks by the Taliban, both the sides want to negotiate from the position of strength

In this case, India has the following concerns

What is the guarantee that Taliban keeps their words? This is because Taliban is not a monolithic organisation. There are factions within Taliban. What if there is a split in Taliban? Will they follow the terms and conditions? And what are the assurances that the Taliban leadership has a complete control over the members of its group?

Even Jihadis have different camps like Al Qaeda Al Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent (AQIS). Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU). Lashkar-i-Janghvi Haqqani network Islamic State of Khorasan Hizb e Islami Harakat ul-Jihad Islami (Movement of Islamic Jihad) Lashkar-e-Tayyiba (Army of the Righteous). Thus, the Taliban also have multiple divisions and factions within themselves. It is not monolithic and coherent. Hence, there is a lot of possibility that any peace with only one faction will be resisted by others.

In the past, multiple peace talks have been held. They were hosted by Turkey, Germany and other Scandinavian countries and now involves Russia, China and finally USA.  So, what is the guarantee that they will keep stand to their words?

For India, Taliban is not a problem. They harbour transnational terrorist groups like LeT, Haqqani network, Al-Qaeda etc. The objective of the United States is not to fight against Taliban. It is to fight against al-Qaeda That is where the problem lies for India. While the focus of USA is to restrict al-Qaeda from attacking its soil, India’ focus is to restrict LeT involvement in the matters pertaining to security and stability within India. The Taliban faction that concerns India is Lashkar-e-Tayyiba (LeT). LeT was initially focused on operations against Indian control of Kashmir and was responsible for May 23, 2014 attack on India's consulate in Herat. India believes that the rapid withdrawal of US troops will trigger anxiety among Tajik and Hazara minorities. This will force them to take up arms to ensure their own security against Taliban and ISIS, leading to a third civil war in Afghanistan. If that happens, it would become easier for Pakistan to recruit such jihadis by paying them to fight for the successionist movement in Kashmir.

What would be the form of power sharing in Afghanistan after the Americans leave? What kind of political model will Afghanistan have post exit (Saudi, Iranian, Lebanese)? Those things are not clear yet. Even if we assume that an elected government is formed on a completely legitimate basis, what are the chances that the government is capable enough to provide security to its citizens? If they won’t be able to do it, people will lose the trust upon the government and may start taking responsibilities, leading to formation of local militia groups.

As per the opinion of experts in India, real peace will continue to be elusive until US brings heavy pressure upon Pakistan to dislodge the terror camps, that Pakistani ISI uses to nurture this ideology and people on its soil. Until the ceasefire happens, India should not endorse Taliban but should keep all the lines of communication open by maintaining contacts with tribal group leaders regardless of their ideologies.

There is no clarity on the form of political structure in Afghanistan. India is also sceptical if the democratic transition be successful as marketed by the United States. We do not have any clarity on what kind of constitution will be framed, when shall the elections be held and if Afghanistan does have the strength and capacity to mobilise democratic institutions etc.  In the past there have been multiple issues about corruption and lack of transparency in elections that have eroded the trust of the masses. This should also be seen in the light of issues faced by the government in Afghanistan pertaining to governance, lack of legal and judicial reforms, freedom of press etc. If elections are truly held, India should help Afghanistan in each and every way to make this transition completely successful. India can contribute by imparting experiences gained by the election commission in the last 70 years, which involves registration of voters, creating a delimitation commission for demarcating the constituencies, developing capability for cyber forensics etc.